I. Philosophy and Theory of the Creative Curriculum
The Creative Curriculum is rooted in educational philosophy and theory as well as practice. It relies heavily on Erik Erikson’s stages of socio-emotional development, Jean Piaget’s theories of how children think and learn, and on principles of physical development.
How Children Develop Socially and Emotionally
The theori,,es of Erik Erikson provide a helpful framework for understanding children’s socioemotional development. Erikson defined eight stages of socio-emotional growth from infancy to old age. At each stage people confront particular socio-emotional circumstances that must be addressed. How these situations are handled determines how a person’s character and personality develop.
To illustrate, at the first stage of development, children learn to either trust or mistrust their environment. Infants who receive consistent and loving care learn that their environment can be trusted. They trust that they will be fed when they are hungry, changed when they are soiled, and comforted when they are upset. They also learn that when parents go away, they will return. This sense of trust gives children the security to venture out on their own. Independence is an outgrowth of trust.
During the early childhood years children deal with three of the eight stages of socio-emotional growth. They learn:
• to trust others outside their families;
• to gain independence and self-control; and
• to take initiative and assert themselves in socially acceptable ways.
How the Curriculum Supports Trust, Autonomy, and Initiative
The Creative Curriculum shows teachers how to foster positive responses to these three stages. The type of environment described in the Creative Curriculum helps children develop a sense of trust and belonging. Children can feel safe and encouraged to explore not only materials but also their relationships with peers and adults. They feel important and valued when others listen to them, seek out their ideas, and allow them to express themselves.
The environment encourages both autonomy and self-control. Children learn to handle their feelings in acceptable, socially appropriate ways. When they are encouraged to make decisions for themselves, children experience a sense of control over their lives. They learn that what they say and do is important and has an effect on others.
Competence and initiative are fostered in this type of environment. By setting clear, age-appropriate expectations for behavior and by letting children know what is expected of them, teachers can engender success and minimize frustration. children’s concerns about doing things “right” diminish because they are encouraged to learn from their mistakes, to explore, and to take risks.
The Creative Curriculum for Early Childhood
Through the Creative Curricuiwn, children’s socio-emotional development is enhanced in the ways outlined below.
Children develop a sense of trust when teachers:
follow a consistent schedule;
carry through on announced plans and/or promises;
make contact with each child during the day; and
make positive comments about children’s play activities.
• Children develop a sense of competence when teachers:
reinforce and value their play activities;
give them developmentally appropriate materials to play with;
provide them with materials that support and challenge their abilities; praise their efforts;
help channel their frustrations; and
encourage them to see tasks through to completion.
• Children develop a sense of initiative when teachers:
provide them with ample opportunities for creative expression;
allow them to explore the environment freely;
permit them to get messy during sand, water, or art activities;
encourage make-believe play;
allow them to work independently; and
promote problem solving and risk taking.
In sum, the Creative Curriculum encourages teachers to recognize the interplay between socio— emotional, cognitive, and physical growth.
How Children Learn to Think
Children learn by doing. Through active involvement with their environment, children attempt to make sense of the world around them. They learn by observing what happens when they interact with materials and other people. They spontaneously engage in activities such as block building, painting, or dramatic play, adding pieces of information to what they already know and thereby generating new understandings. Children learn simple concepts and then use these concepts to grasp more complex ideas.
Concrete and Literal Thinking
Young children view the world concretely, and as they mature, their view changes. What they know at any given point will depend on the first-hand experiences they have had. By.interacting with their physical environment (indoor and outdoor) and their social envirotiment (other children and adults), they continually broaden their frame of reference.
For the young child everything is concrete and literal:
• Three-year-old child to parent: “We went on a walk at school today. We were looking for signs of winter, but I only saw one STOP sign.”
• Parent reading to a four-year-old: “...and then he bawled him out.” Child, incredulously:
“You mean he took away all his hair?”
Conclusions about cause and effect also have concrete origins for the young child:
• A three-year-old observes: “Today we are having fish because the teacher is late. Whenever the teacher is late we have fish.”
• A four-year-old notices that a friend doesn’t want ice cream one night. Later that night, the friend becomes sick. The next day when offered ice cream, the child says, “Yes, because if I don’t have ice cream, I’ll get sick like Laurie did.”
In each case the child has noted certain events and interpreted them in an effort to make sense of the .vorld.
Learning from the Environment
The Creative Curriculum builds on Piaget’s theories of development in young children. Piaget lieved that all children learn through active exploration of their environment, beginning in infancy. Sv grasping, rolling, pounding, smelling, sucking, and crawling around and over everything they come in contact with, infants and toddlers discover that objects have weight, volume, color, and :exture.
During the preschool and kindergarten years, children add to what they have learned in these early explorations. As children’s learning expands, the environment plays a critical role. The richer the environment, the more concrete opportunities there are for children to learn by interacting with materials and people. The teacher’s role is to create an environment that invites children to observe, :o be active, to make choices, and to experiment.
Development of Language
Language development begins during the first few months of life. Infants respond to the language in their world. They listen to the sounds they hear around them and notice differences in timing, rhythm, and pitch. Infants need to hear lots of speech before they develop their own. By three or four months, infants begin to produce their own sounds. They coo and babble. At around 9 to 12 months, babbling peaks. At 10 to 15 months, most infants can understand and respond to a number of words. They start using words to name objects and people in their world: “Dada,” “car.” They may say “doggy” for every animal with four legs. Children begin to make sentences by putting two words together to describe an action (“me go,” “my ball”). They soon learn to add adjectives (“my big ball”) and negatives (“no go outside”). By listening to how adults and older children use words, young children gradually expand their vocabularies.
Preschool children supplement what they have learned through these early experiences. They use words as symbols for people, things, movements, feelings, and ideas. They develop the ability to talk about their observations and experiences as they explore their world. Their environment becomes larger and richer as they learn to understand others and express their ideas more effectively.
The Creative Curriculum for Early Childhood
However, the world they learn about through language makes sense only if the words are tied to real life experiences. Young children must have first-hand contact with the world they hear about if they are to understand what is being said.
Learning to Classify
During the early childhood years, children also begin to think in terms of classes, numbers, and relationships. They group things on the basis of one or more classifying schemes:
• descriptive classifications (size, color, shape, or other attributes);
• generic classifications (general categories, such as animals, transportation vehicles, shells, or plants); and
• relational classifications (function or association, such as cup and saucer or firefighter and firetruck).
These groupings are made as children physically manipulate real objects and discuss their actior.s. The ability to classify and organize information is a critical thinking skill that enables children to make sense of their experiences. Their early efforts to understand how things are related may no:
always be correct, but their ideas provide evidence of their thinking processes. For example, when a child says to the father of a friend, “You can’t be a policeman, you’re a daddy,” she is letting us know that she thinks that people who are classified as “daddies” can’t also belong to another grour labeled “policemen.”
Developing Abstract Thinking Skills
Through the development of language and the ability to think in terms of classes, numbers, a relationships, children acquire the foundation for such abstract skills as reading, writing, anc computing. Young children need many opportunities to play with real objects as they use language. symbolize, and classify. The Creative Curriculum emphasizes children’s direct manipulation of materials so they can build repertoires of experience. The curriculum gives teachers an approacL to helping children learn to solve problems by providing each child with information-gathering an questioning strategies. Children who are good problem solvers are better prepared for our increasingly complex world. They are more likely to be flexible in their thinking and able to use a variety of problem-solving techniques.
How Children Develop Physically
Physical development is sometimes taken for granted in early childhood education. We assume children will progress through a predictable sequence of stages and acquire predictable skills. To a certain extent this is true; however, a number of factors can promote or slow down physical development.
Normal physical development relies on good health, proper nutrition, and a safe environment. Proper nutrition, beginning during the prenatal months, is crucial to both mental and physical development. During these years children need well-balanced meals and snacks that are high in nutrients and low in fats, salt, and sugar.
Many health problems can be identified through a screening process. Disabilities or developmental lags, chronic conditions such as allergies, poor posture, or abnormal fatigue will affect development and should thereforebediagnosedand treated toensureoptimal growth. Finally, asafeenvironment is a prerequisite for promoting physical development. Children need an indoor and outdoor space where they can try out all their newly acquired skills without danger of injury.
As young children grow physically, their muscles develop and mature. Children are able to perform more complex and refined actions. Both gross and fine motor development are important, although gross motor development usually comes before fine motor development.
Gross Motor Development
Gross motor skills involve the large muscles of the body. Most young children enjoy activities such as running, skipping, throwing, catching,jumping, climbing, pulling, carrying, and balancing. These activities allow children to use and refine their gross motor skills in a natural way. When children are physically ready to develop a new skill, they need many opportunities to try these new skills over and over again.
In the Creative Curriculum, teachers enhance gross motor skill development by providing a safe space, equipment, and plenty of time for children to practice skills. By offering encouragement, guidance, and reinforcement for efforts and accomplishments, teachers establish an environment in which children are inspired to participate in activities requiring physical skills.
Fine Motor Development
Fine motor activities involve the use of small muscles such as those in the wrist and hand. Refinement and coordination of these muscles are critical for writing. Appropriate activities for developing fine motor skills include building block towers, molding clay or playdough, using scissors or tongs, stringing beads, placing pegs in holes, drawing with crayons or markers, and painting.
As children gain control over their small muscles and learn to coordinate movements, their drawings usually reflect their increasing skills. From making scribbles and marks on a page, they start to draw circles, curves, and lines and then begin to combine these shapes. Gradually, these shapes remind them of something, and they will name what they draw. Their drawings begin to look more and more like ieal objects and people, and the)’ may experiment with letters. By the time they are five, most children can write their names.
The Creative Curriculum shows how teachers can set up an environment and plan activities that allow children to develop and practice their fine motor skills as they become developmentally ready and interested.
Importance of Physical Development
The Creative Curriculum offers guidance for teachers on how to help children develop physical skills that are important for future learning tasks. For example, when children string beads, line up shells in a sandbox, or use the zipper ona self-help frame, they are refining their eye-hand coordination, their small muscle skills, and their sense of directionality. Developing these physical skills lays the foundation for cognitive abilities in reading, writing, and math.
The Creative Curricuhini for Early Childhood
Physical development also affects children’s socio-emotional development. As children learn what their bodies can do, they gain self-confidence. The more they can do, the more willingly they try new and increasingly challenging tasks. This positive attitude means that children are more willing to try out new physical skills without fear of failure. It also gives them a positive attitude toward growing and learning in other areas of development.
The theories that define how children learn and develop socio-emotionally, cognitively, and physically are essential to designing and implementing a developmentally appropriate curriculum. Teachers who understand developmental theory are equipped to make appropriate decisions as they plan for young children.
II. Goals and Objectives
In an early childhood curriculum, well-thought-out goals and objectives are important planning tools for teachers in defining and implementing the curriculum. Goals and objectives state what children can be expected to achieve and provide a way of assessing each child’s growth during the year. They provide a measure for assessing the effectiveness of the curriculum itself.
Clear goals and objectives that stem from a comprehensive philosophy and theory help you as a teacher know where you are heading with each activity and how to carry it out. For example, one goal of socio-emotional development is to acquire and demonstrate cooperative, pro-social behaviors. With this goal in mind, you might do the following:
• set up the physical environment so children can work successfully in small groups;
• help children learn to share and take turns by first providing duplicates of materials and then using waiting lists or timers so children have a concrete way of knowing when they will have a turn;
• post a job chart so each child has responsibilities for maintaining the room; and
• help children work through disputes so they learn skills in negotiating and problem solving.
Listed below are specific goals and objectives for children between three and five years of age who participate in a program using the Creative Curriculum. All children should not be expected to reach every objective listed here during theirpreschool and kindergarten years. There are large differences in development that are perfectly normal. These goals and objectives are offered as guideposts for teachers implementing the Creative Curriculum. They can be modified, or others may be added as appropriate.
Socio-Emotional Development
• To experience a sense of self-esteem:
identify oneself as a member of a specific family and cultural group
feel proud of one’s heritage and background
demonstrate confidence in one’s growing abilities
demonstrate increasing independence
stand up for one’s rights
• To exhibit a positive attitude toward life:
demonstrate trust in adults
be able to separate from parents
demonstrate interest and participate in classroom activities
participate in routine activities easily
• To demonstrate cooperative, pro-social behavior:
seek out children and adults
understand and respect differences
accept responsibility for maintaining the classroom environment help others in need
respect the rights of others
share toys and materials
work cooperatively with others on completing a task
resolve conflicts constructively
Cognitive Development
To acquire learning and problem-solving skills:
demonstrate an interest in exploring
ask and respond to questions
show curiosity and a desire to learn
use planning skills
observe and make discoveries
find more than one solution to a problem
apply information and experience to a new context
use creativity and imagination
persist in tasks
• To expand kgical thinking skills:
classify objects by similarities and differences
put together objects that belong together
recall a sequence of events (e.g., first, second, last)
arrange objects in a series (e.g., smallest to largest)
recognize patterns and be able to repeat them
increase awareness of cause-and-effect relationships
• To acquire concepts and information leading to a fuller understanding of the immediate world:
demonstrate an awareness of time concepts (e.g., yesterday, today) identify names of objects and events
make comparisons (e.g., more/less, larger/smaller, taller/shorter) use words to describe the characteristics of objects (e.g., colors, shapes) identify the roles people play in society
identify relationships of objects in space (below, inside, under) count in correct sequence and match One-to-one
• To demonstrate skills in make-believe play:
assume a pretend role
make-believe with objects
make-believe about situations
sustain play
interact with other children
• To expand verbal communication skills:
recall words in a song or finger play
follow simple directions
use words to explain ideas and feelings
talk with other children during daily activities
make up stories
participate in group discussions
To develop beginning reading skills:
acquire a love of books
listen to a story and explain what happened
demonstrate knowledge of how to use books (e.g., turning pages)
recognize pictures and text on a page
To acquire beginning writing skills:
make increasingly representational drawings
imitate recognizable letters and numbers
recognize written names
label pictures
demonstrate an interest in using writing for a purpose (e.g.,
making signs, sending letters)
Physical Development
To enhance gross motor skills:
use gross motor skills with confidence
walk up and down steps
run with increasing control over direction and speed
jump over or from objects without falling
use large muscles for balance (e.g., walk on tiptoe, balance on one foot) catch a ball or bean bag
throw an object in the intended direction
ride and steer a tricycle
climb up or down equipment without falling
• To enhance and refine fine motor skills:
coordinate eye and hand movements (e.g., completing puzzles, chopping) use small muscles to complete tasks (e.g., building, stringing)
use small muscles for self-help skills (e.g., pouring, zipping)
use writing and drawing tools with increasing control and intention
• To use all senses in learning:
demonstrate skill in discriminating sounds
demonstrate visual discrimination skills
discriminate by taste and smell
discriminate differences in texture
Taken together, the goals and objectives within these three areas of development form the foundation for the Creative Curriculum. By focusing on children’s socio-emotional, cognitive, and physical growth, the Creative Curriculum promotes an integrated and effective developmental approach to learning.
II. The Physical Environment
We are all affected by our environment. Our physical surroundings affect how we feel, how comfortable we are, how we relate to others, and how successfully we accomplish what we set out todo.
For young children the environment is particularly important. The size of the classroom and outdoor play areas, the colors of the walls, the type of furniture and flooring, the amount of light, and the number of windows all influence how children learn. You can do many things to create a supportive and interesting environment for young children. Thoughtful arrangement of the indoor and outdoor environments will support your goals for children. -
Establishing Interest Areas
A classroom for young children benefits from having clearly defined, well-equipped interest areas that are arranged to promote independence, foster decision making, and encourage involvement. When the room is divided into interest areas, children are offered clear choices. An area set aside for books, art, or table toys provides opportunities for quiet play. Areas set aside for dramatic play. block building, woodworking, or large muscle experiences give children options for active play.
The following guidelines should be considered in arranging your interest areas:
• Separate noisy areas from quiet ones (e.g., blocks and house corner together, library and tables toys on another side of the room).
• Clearly define each area using shelves, and furniture.
• Display materials at a height accessible to children so they can see what choices are available.
• Separate children’s materials from teachers’ supplies.
• Logically place interest areas near needed resources (e.g., art area near water).
• Ensure that teachers can see all the areas without obstruction.
• Incorporate a traffic pattern that keeps children from constantly interrupting each other.
In the Creative Curriculum, the environment typically includes space for the following activities:
• Blocks . Sand and Water
• House Corner • Library
• Table Toys • Music and Movement
• Art • Outdoors
To further enrich the program, especially for older preschoolers and kindergarten children, we suggest adding space for Cooking and Computers.
Based on the foregoing criteria for arrangement of interest areas, the following floor plan illustrates what a Creative Curriculum classroom might look like:
Assessing the Effectiveness of Interest Areas
To ensure that the interest areas are effective as settings for learning, you will need to observe and assess how children are using these areas. You can do these observations during work time, when children select their own activities. Your ongoing, informal observations will enable you to learn what materials children typically select, how children use these materials, and how children relate to their peers. With access to such information, you can make the appropriate changes to the learning environment.
Here are some questions to consider:
How Children Select Interest Areas and Materials
Which areas are rarely used during work time?
Which interest areas and materials are selected most often?
Does the traffic pattern permit children to play safely?
Do children select the same, similar, or different materials daily?
Are children able to find and return materials independently?
Do children show genderreIated preferences for materials or toys?
How Children Use Materials
What do children actually do with the selected materials?
Do children have the skills to use materials successfully?
Do children use materials appropriately and creatively?
The Creative Curriculum for Early Childhood
• Which types of materials seem to stimulate dramatic play? Group play?
• Do different children play differently with the same materials?
• Which materials hold children’s interest the longest?
• How does the selection of materials change over the course of the year?
• Are there enough materials to keep children meaningfully involved?
• Do children help care for materials and return them where they belong?
How Children Interact with Peers and Adults
• How do children socialize? Do they approach others or wait to be invited?
• Which children play together most often?
• How do children ask for help from adults? From peers?
• Which play experiences seem to foster cooperative play? Solitary play?
You will know that your interest areas are effective if children are able to: make choices ad activities on their own; use materials appropriately and creatively once they enter an area: s:ick an activity and stay involved for a designated period of time; experience success when they an interest area; and help care for materials.
In each of the interest-area modules in the Creative Curricultm, you will find specific ques consider as you observe children’s use of that area. Also included are suggestions for co:
enhancing the environment so that children are challenged and motivated to learn.
Messages in the Environment
The types of materials in a classroom and the way in which they are organized convey im mes sages to children. A room that is attractive, cheerful, orderly, and filled with interesting o conveys the message: “This is a comfortable place where you can explore, feel safe, and Ic Teachers who are aware of the power of the environment are able to arrange indoor and o spaces to convey the messages they want children to receive. Listed below are specific sugges for conveying positive messages to children through your environment.
This is a Good Place to Be
• Neutral colors (gray, off-white, beige) are usedon the walls, and brightcolors are used selectively to highlight interest areas or mark storage areas on shelves.
• Furniture is clean and well-maintained.
• Wall decorations are largely made up of children’s art displayed attractively at their eye level and with large spaces of blank wall so that children are not overwhelmed.
• Decorations such as (non-poisonous) plants, fabric-covered pillows, and colorful tablecloths are used in the classroom.
You Belong here
• There is a cubby or basket where each child can keep personal things and with each child’s name and/or picture inside.
• Furniture is child-sized and in good condition.
• Pictures on the wall, in books, and in learning materials include people of different ethnic backgrounds and economic means and people with disabilities.
• Children’s artwork is displayed and protected.
• Materials, equipment, and furniture are adapted so children with disabilities can be involved in all areas of the classroom.
This Is a Place You Can Trust
• A well-defined schedule is provided so children learn the ordef of events that occur each day.
• Pictures illustrate the schedule so children can “read” it.
• Consistency is provided in routines such as eating, napping, and toileting.
• Shelves are neat and uncluttered so children can see what materials and toys are available.
• Furniture and materials are arranged consistently and labeled so children know where to find the things they need.
}rQ(t Can Do Many Things on Your Own and Be Independent
• Materials are stored on low shelves, encouraging children to select and use materials on thefr own.
• Materials are logically organized (drawing paper is near the markers and crayons, pegs are near the pegboards) and located in areas where they are to be used (table toys on a shelf near low tables, blocks and props in the block corner).
• Shelves are labeled with pictures that show children where toys and materials belong.
• An illustrated job chart shows what each child’s responsibilities are.
• Open spaces outdoors encourage children to use their bodies freely.
You Can Get A way and Be by Yourself Wizen You Need To
• Small, quiet areas of the room accommodate one or two children.
• There is a large pillow or stuffed chair in a quiet corner of the classroom.
• There are headphones for a phonograph or tape recorder for individual listening.
This Is a Safe Place to Explore and Try Out Your Ideas
• There are protected and defined quiet areas for small group activities (e.g., a table with. three to four chairs enclosed by low shelves containing table toys).
• Smocks are available for art activities and water play so that children can express themselves without fear of getting soiled.
• Protected floor space is clearly defined and Out of the line of traffic so that children can build with blocks.
• The outdoor area is fenced in and protected.
• Attractive displays of materials invite children to use them.
• Toys are rotated so there is frequently something new to interest children.
Identifying Problems Related to the Room Arrangement
Even if you have carefully organized the physical environment, things don’t always go according plan. There are times when no matter what you do, children seem restless. They may fight over toy wander about, become easily distracted, or use materials roughly. Although there are many possi b reasons for such behaviors, the room arrangement may be one contributing factor.
The following chart presents possible environmental causes for children’s restless or disru’tiv behavior and identifies strategies for rearranging the space to correct and prevent further recurre -.c of the problem.
PROBLEM BEHAVIOR POSSIBLE CAUSES HOW TO CHANGE
THE ENVIRONMENT
Running in tie classroom. Too much open space; room not divided into smaller areas. Use shelves and furniture to divide the space.
Fighting over toys. Few duplicate toys; children asked to share too often. Provide duplicates of toys; shc. children when it wiH be thcr turn (e.g., use a timer with a ::
a sand timer, or a list wiih nar-. of children waiting for their tu—
Wandering around; unable to choose activities, Room too cluttered; choices not clear; not enough to do.
. Get rid of clutter. Simplify th layout of the room and materia Add more activity choices.
Easily distracted; trouble staying with a task and completing it. Areas undefined and open; children can see everything going on in the room, Use shelves to define areas so children are not distracted by other activities.
Materials used roughly; children resist cleaning up materials, Materials on shelves are messy; no order to display of materials. Make a place for everything. Use picture labels to show whe-e materials go.
When children’s behavior is troublesome, consider the suggestions in this chart. Your rooi arrangement may be working against your goals, and a few changes can make a dramatic differeric Because the physical environment provides the setting in which children can thrive and lear thoughtful arrangement of indoor and outdoor spaces is a basic element of the Creative Curriculuj Effective use of the physical environment will give you more time to interact with children and promote learning
IV. Meeting the Needs of Individual Children
The children you teach are individuals—each one has unique interests, experiences, abilities, and needs. To teach effectively, early childhood educators must always keep in mind the dynamics and needs of the group of children as well as the individual characteristics and needs of each child in the group.
An understanding of child development is a good place to start. When the curriculUm is based on a knowledge of how children grow and develop—socially, emotionally, cognitively, and physically— then the activities, environment, schedule, and expectations for children’s behavior and learning are likely to be appropropriate for the children in the group. When the curriculum encourages teachers to respect and value differences among children—cultural, ethnic, ability, and gender—and provides a way to assess each child’s individual strengths, interests, and needs, then the program is more likely to be responsive to and appropriate for each child. This focus on each child is called individualizing. It is the practical application of a philosophy that recognizes, values, andplans for differences in how children develop, the rate at which growth occurs, and the individual life experiences that children bring to the program.
Understanding Children’s Basic Needs
In planning a program that meets the needs of individual children, teachers must consider where children are in their development when they arrive at the program. Abraham Maslow’s “Hierarchy of Needs” provides a helpful framework for assessing children’s basic needs.
MASLOW’S HIERARCHY OF NEEDS
As this hierarchy shows, “cognitive” needs (the drive to know, to understand, to explore) are hi on the list. Before a child can be receptive to and interested in learning and exploring, four other ba needs must be met. These first four needs and their relevance to early childhood educators described below.
Physiological needs are the most basic needs of all living creatures. Children who come to sch hungry are focused on hunger. Efforts to teach a hungry child are destined to fail until this nee satisfied. This is why many early childhood programs and schools provide breakfast, snacks, a lunch for children who otherwise might not receive a balanced meal before coming to school.
Safety is the need to feel secure, safe, and Out of danger. Children coming into a strange environrn need to know that it is a safe place. As a teacher, you prove to these children that they will be protec and that no harm will come to them while they are at school. The feeling of safety enables chili to reach out to others and to explore.
Belongingness—feeling accepted and loved—comes after safety. You may have children in class who do not believe that they are worthy of being loved or accepted. In an effort to se acceptance and love from adults, these children often exhibit behavior that tests acceptance—acti out and attacking others because they are angry or hurt. They expect to be rejected and theref behave in ways that prove to everyone around them that they are worthy of the rejection they ha experienced. These children need adults who are consistent and caring, not harsh and judgme-.:
They need to hear messages like this:
“I can’t let you kick anyone. Kicking hurts. I won’t let anyone hurt you, and I can’t let you hurt other people.”
Rather than this:
“You’re a bad girl. Only bad girls kick.”
Seif-esteem——.a sense of one’s own worth—is the fourth basic need. Self-esteem comes from c.a experiences that confirm who we are and what we are capable of doing. When children have pos experiences, their self-esteem grows and they see themselves as people who can do tLE successfully. If children’s experiences are predominantly negative, their sense of self suffe Perhaps the important adults in their lives constantly shame and belittle them in an effort to r::
them conform and behave. As a result, these children may have learned the following messa:
“I am a failure.”
“I can’t do it right.”
“I will never be able to do it.”
Such children are discouraged. They give up easily or don’t even try to complete a task.
Children’s sense of identity and self-esteem is rooted in their culture and ethnic background. We I in a world of many different cultures. Messages that society gives to individuals from a particu culture affect children’s self-esteem.
Children from different cultures may experience school in different ways. There may be differe n in learning styles or ways of communicating. Teachers must value and respect cultural differen in order to promote self-esteem in children. By learning even a few words of a child’s prim language or including songs or recipes from each child’s family in the day’s activities, teachers
convey the message that differences are valuable and interesting. By including dress-up clothes arid cooking utensils from different cultures in your house corner, children learn that differences are valued.
Maslow has presented human needs in a hierarchy to indicate that basic needs must be met first. As an early childhood educator, you consider all these needs as you work with each child. A comprehensive early childhood program addresses all areas of development—social, emotional, cognitive, and physical—because each area is related o the others. To understand each child’s development and to plan appropriately for each child, you will need strategies for assessing individual needs and abilities. This process begins with screening.
Screening in Early Childhood
Good teachers are continually observing children and screening for any signs of problems. Some early childhood programs, such as Head Start, require that all children be screened at the beginning of the year. The purpose of screening is to identify any children who might be in need of special services because of a developmental lag or a health problem. Developmental screening is only a preliminary identification of those children who should be evaluated in greater depth. By identifying a child’s problem early, teachers can design corrective measures so that the child will be more likely to succeed in school.
The screening process bcgins when a child is first enrolled in a program Parents come in for an interview with staff and often complete a parent questionnaire. Specific questions can elicit important information on the child’s development. Topics covered in the interview form may include the following:
• the child’s birth history;
• the child’s health (e.g., eyesight, hearing, any history of headaches or fainting spells);
• self-help skills (e.g., eating, sleeping, washing, dressing);
• temperament (e.g., active, quiet, cries easily);
• ability to use language and to follow directions; and
• skills such as drawing, the ability to catch and throw ball, play preferences, and soon.
Parental input is the first essential piece of information in the screening process. As the child’s teacher, you provide additional information as you observe the child’s daily interactions with peers, adults, or materials. Because you see each child in relation to others, you can often pick out differences that may be important indicators of developmental lags or potential problems.
Some programs use a screening instrument (test) as part of the screening process. Screening instruments are particularly useful in identifying children whose problem is not immediately evident and who therefore may be overlooked. A typical screening instrument assesses four major areas of development:
• Personal/Social: self-help skills, capacity to enjoy playing with materials and other children.
• Visual and Fine Motor Adaptive: small-muscle control, eye-hand coordination, ability to remember visual sequences and to reproduce objects on paper.
• Gross Motor/Body A wareness: balance, ability to imitate body positions, and large motor coordination.
• Language and Cognition: speech and language, ability to reason, count, solve problems, and remember and repeat auditory sequences.
If your program uses a screening instrument, it should be one with established reliability and vah Reliability means that the instrument consistently gives similar results. Validity means th2 results are accurate: the instrument tests what it is supposed to test. It is also important to fin if the instrument you are considering is designed for the age group of your children, whether been standardized with a population similar to yours, and whether it is available in the child’s pri language. All these factors affect whether the results you obtain are reliable and valid.’
Children who are identified as “at risk” in the screening process should be referred to specialis an in-depth diagnostic evaluation. The child’s parents are informed and fully involved diagnostic process. Evaluation results can be invaluable to both you and the child’s paren:s. together with experts will determine a course of action to best meet the child’s needs.
Ongoing Assessment
Ongoing assessment is the process of observing and recording children’s work and deveor progress. Teachers need a system that enables them to document each child’s croir:
interests, and skills in order to plan appropriate experiences and activities that wi development and learning for every child in the classroom.
Ongoing assessment enables teachers to plan and implement the curriculum in ways that ‘. suit the needs and interests of a particular group of children. Because the Creative Cd’-’:
addresses all areas of development, observations should focus on the identified goals and cb in each developmental area. We recommend two methods for assessing children’s pro checklist and a portfolio of children’s work.
Checklist for Documenting Children’s Progress
A checklist outlines behaviors and skills that can be observed during regular c1assroo a
These behaviors and skills should reflect the goals and objectives of the curriculum. Many :
find it helpful to have this kind of framework to guide their observations.
In Appendix A you will find the Creative Curriculum Child Development and Learning Che for documenting children’s progress. The checklist should be completed for each child at lea s:
during the year: about one month after the child has entered the program and again before dof the year. For some children you may want to use the checklist more often, perhaps focusi specific areas of concern. The information you gather will enable you to determine each c progress and to plan for each child’s growth. It can be kept in the child’s folder and share parents.
See Samuel I. Meisels, Developmental Screening in Early Childhood: A Guide (3rd ed.) (Washington, DC:
Association for the Education of Young Children, 1989), for information on screening instrumcnts.
portfolios of Children’s Work
The portfolio—a collection of a child’s work—documents the child’s progress and facilitates planning for each child. The portfolio should be large enough to accommodate a growing sample of items such as drawings and writing samples, photographs of block structures, stories the child has dictated and/or illustrated, and even tape recordings of a child reading or telling a story. The portfolio can also include teacher observations that seem significant, such as a dramatic play episode or the child’s handling of a difficult social interaction.
Selecting the items forapcrtfolio can beespecially meaningful if you involvechildrcn in theprocess. periodically, you might invite children to review samples of their work and choose what items they want to preserve in their portfolios. Questions to guide this selection process are helpful: “What are you most proud of?” or “What was most difficult for you to do?” Portfolio items should all be dated and labeled.
Portfolio items are more useful when they are organized in a logical way so you can refer to them when you are planning for each child. The categories used in the developmental checklist are one way of organizing portfolio items. The following samples of children’s work might be included in their portfolios:
• Socio-emotional development:
A chart of the activity choices the child has made over a one-week period
Notes from parent conferences
Observations of the child’s interactions with other children
Observations of the child’s dramatic play
• Cognitive development:
Artwork reflecting an understanding of relative sizes
Tape recordings of a child telling a story
Samples of invented spelling
Drawings with captions
Charts the child has made to track information (e.g., the growth of a plant)
Teacher observations of how the child responds to stories
• Physical development:
Photographs of block structures or pattern block designs
A collage that involved cutting and pasting
Drawings
Notes on games the child has successfully mastered
Photographs of a child on a climber
Items in the portfolio can be shared with parents at conferences to illustrate the child’s progress in the program.
Using Information Gathered to Individualize
Individualizing means recognizing and allowing for differences in development and interests wh planning activities and changes to the environment so that there is sufficient variety to meet the nec and interests of each child.
Careful assessmentof each child reveals that in any group of child.ren, there are individual differe nc in development. These differences are quite normal and to be expected. In any group, some childr will be able to use scissors and some won’t; some will be very verbal and some will have a limit vocabulary; some will scribble and others will be making representational drawings; some will i the props in the house corner to role-play experiences they have had and others will use the props toys to manipulate and explore.
Children not only have unique patterns of development but also enter the program with their o’ interests, experiences, and learning styles. Some children are enamored of cars or dolls; o:h express their ideas through art materials. Some are fascinated by fire engines and all sorts of lar vehicles; others may not have one major interest but will be responsive to whatever new materi. and experiences are offered. Individualizing means that teachers know each child’s preferences a interests and use this information to create a learning environment appropriate for each chi Individualization requires that teachers plan daily activities that promote individual growth building on each child’s interests.
How mdi iidualizing Works
To illustrate how information gathered about a child helps teachers individualize, consider example of Kim. An observational record reveals that Kim rarely selects an activity on her own. S wanders around the room and watches what other children are doing. She doesn’t get invoi’.ed an activity unless a teacher intervenes. Kim’s teachers might try several strategies to help Kim rr choices on her own:
• talking with Kim quietly each morning to discuss the various choices of activities and helping her select one she’d like to try;
• setting up a system to help Kim and other children select an activity by placing a card with their name or picture on a planning board located in each interest area; and
• planning an activity Kim would enjoy and encouraging her to ask one or two other children to join in.
In another example, a teacher might find that several children are having trouble using scissors.
teacher could plan activities to help strengthen small muscles, such as picking up objects with ton molding clay, and playing with manipulative toys such as pegboards and tinker toys.
One of the easiest ways to individualize the program is to provide a variety of developmen appropriate activities for children every day. In this way children learn to make choices. They dec which interest areas and activities they like best and select materials that appeal to them. They determine how long to spend in an interest area and who they want to play with in that area. Allow children to make choices is also one of the best strategies for promoting positive behavior. Chil who are interested in the activities offered and who are appropriately challenged are more likel feel good about themselves and get along well with others.
Helping Children Get Along with Others
The development of social competence—getting along with others—is an underlying goal of early childhood education. Social competence includes the ability to initiate and maintain relationships with others. A child must learn how to approach other children, how to negotiate issues that come up, how to take turns, and how to communicate effectively.’ Children who are able to develop and maintain friendships are more likely to lead successful and productive lives as adults.
Children’s social development is strengthened when they have secure relationships with their parents and teachers and many opportunities to play with other children. When the important relationships in their lives are unreliable and children have few opportunities to play with others, they are less likely to develop effective social skills. Some children appear to develop social skills with ease. They instinctively know how to make friends and find their place in a group. They get pleasure from being with other children and relating to adults. Other children, however, may need more time and help to feel comfortable in a group. Once they feel comfortable, they too can join in and make friends.
Children who are unable to make friends and who tend to feel rejected a great deal of the time often have serious problems later in life. Such children may have low self-esteem and lack the social skills they need to develop friendships. Because they aren’t accepted by their peers, they have fewer opportunities to develop social skills. They have difficulty breaking the cycle of rejection.
Children present different challenges to teachers. Those who are especially shy or overly aggressive often have difficulty getting along with others. You can help these children by first identifying the nature of the problem. By building on their strengths and helping them gain acceptance, you will be helping these children acquire social competence.
Shy Children
In almost every group there is a shy child. You may feel empathy for these children and want to help them become part of the group. Before offering assistance, however, it’s important to observe to see
— if a shy child actually needs your assistance. The child may need to experience success with solitary play—for example, completing a new puzzle—before progressing to group play. A shy child may need to observe other children at play to learn how to be part of the group. Beginning with a small group and then moving into a larger group, the shy child can move at his or her own pace.
There are some children, however, who will need your intervention and support. You can offer this help in indirect ways without making it obvious to anyone else that the help is being offered. Comments such as “be nice to Billy” or “can you let Shantelle play, too?” are not helpful. They tend to make a shy child feel self-conscious or embarrassed. The other children may go along with your suggestions for a time, but you won’t have accomplished the goal of helping the child learn social skills.
What Teachers Can Do
The following are suggestions for helping shy children gain acceptance:
Observe the child at play so you know what interests and skills are most evident.
2 Lilian G. Katz and Sylvia C Chard Engaging Children’s Minds: The Project Approach (Norwood, Ni: Ablex Publishing Co., 1989).
Help the child feel accepted. Use the child’s primary language. Read stones about how shy children learn to get along with others. (See the Library module for suggestions.) Talk about how you think the child feels: “It feels a little strange when you don’t know the other children. You’ll get to know them soon and feel much better.”
• Describe the child’s actions. “How did you build so high without letting the blocks fall? You must have placed them very carefully.”
• Plan an activityfora small gro up that you know will interest the child. For example, ifplaydough is a favorite activity, invite the child and one or two other children to help you make a batch.
• Interpret what the child is observing. When you see the child watching other children, make a connection. “You’ve been watching Jessie and Pammy at the water table.” If the child responds positively, you can ask a question to extend the conversation. “Do you think Jessie can make the water go up the tube? Let’s go over to the water table and find out.”
• Help the child find a friend. Try inviting the child and one of the more social and sensitive children to help you do a task. “Our garden looks very dry. I bet the plants are thirsty. Joseph, can you and Teresita help me carry this water to our garden?”
Aggressive Children
Some children’s behavior will challenge even the most patient adult. They might kick, bite, hit, s:
and use other means of aggression to express their unhappiness or inability to relate positively:
others. In their unhappiness, such children cannot take turns, negotiate, or cooperate with othe: Their behavior causes other children to not want to include them in their play.
Finding the Reasons for the Behavior
ft is natural for you to feel impatient with a child who frequently hurts other children or uses fc: to make others let him or her into the group. But because you are a professional, you must learr:
overcome angry and negative feelings about an aggressive child. It may help to remember that :- children who hit or bully other children are troubledor in pain, emotionally. They feel unhappy c insecure, and they need adults to help them learn positive ways of relating to other children. Thes children must feel safe and cared for before they can develop self-esteem and the social skills to mak friends and play with other children. Part of your job is to try to discover the underlying causes o the child’s behavior—the source of the troubled response he or she is making to the world.
Punishment Versus Discipline
One of the most important tasks in growing up is learning what behaviors are appropriate and whic’ ones are not permissible. If our only goal is to make children behave, the task is simple. Adults ar bigger than children and can force them to behave. B utchildren who are forced, provoked, or shame into behaving are likely to learn the following:
“I am a bad person.”
“I need to watch out for adults.”
“I had better not get caught.”
These children tend to behave well only when someone is watching because they don’t want to be unished. They do not learn for themselves what behaviors are acceptable and why certain behaviors are not tolerated. Punishment may stop children’s negative behavior temporarily, but it doesn’t help hem develop self-discipline. Instead, it may reinforce their bad feelings about themselves.
.dthough the words “discipline” and “punishment” are often used to mean the same thing, they are actually very different. Discipline means guiding and directing children toward acceptable behavior. The most important goal of discipline is to help children gain inner controls. Teachers discipline :hildren to help them learn the consequence of their actions.
What Teachers Can Do
To develop self-discipline, children need to be offered choices and opportunities to make decisions, knowing what the logical consequences will be. Teachers must clearly state in advance the choices and the consequences. For example, you might say, “Sanchez, if you keep knocking down Tyler’s blocks, you will have to leave the block area. You can make your own buildings and knock them down if you want. Or you can find something else to do.” This type of guidance helps a child develop self-discipline because it sets limits and offers a choice. It results in less anger and fewer power struggles than does punishment.
You can use a variety of approaches to guide children’s behavior. No one approach works for every child or every situation. The approach used should be based on your knowledge of the child and the particular problem. Positive guidance approaches include th following:
• Anticipate and plan ahead so that you can head off problems. “This new table toy is going to be very popular. I’d better set up a system for taking turns before I introduce it.”
• Lookfor reasons why a childis misbehaving. Discuss the situation with a colleague. “Tyesha’s mother is in the hospital. She is probably worried about her.”
• Focus on the child’s behavior, not the child’s value as a person. “I like the way you wiped the table, Marguerite” (rather than “you’re a good girl for wiping the table”).
• Help children understand the consequences of their actions. “S hantaye and Annie, the doll broke when you were both pulling its arms. You will have to wait until it’s fixed before you can play with it again.”
• Explain the choices available. “If you want to drive your truck, Susan, you must drive on the rug, not under the easels.”
• Help children use problem-solving skills to develop solutions. “I can see it is hard for you to share your bear, Carlos. Where can you put it until you go home?”
• Help children refrain from dwelling on mistakes so that they learn to move on. “Your paint cup spilled. Let’s go find a sponge to clean up.”
Watch for restlessness. Give children room to release their energies and frustrations physically. “Kathy, you seem fidgety this afternoon. Why don’t you and Leroy try out the climber for a little while? I’ll watch you climb.”
In guiding children’s behavior, it is important to be clear, positive, and firm. Establish simple but clear rules and limits for your classroom and enforce them consistently. Too many rules confuse children. They are more likely to respect rules when they understand the reasons behind them and when they help make up the rules. For example, to help children understand why it’s important to keep the water in the water table, you might ask: “What might happen if we squirt water on the floor?” As children come up with answers, (when the water spills, the floor gets slippery; someone might fall and get hurt), they might also think of a rule: “Keep the water in the water table.” Children might also make suggestions such as keeping sponges and towels near the table so that everyone can help clean up any spills.
State rules positively and firmly rather than harshly and judgrnentally. The following chart offers some alternatives.
Helping Children Learn to Share
As every early childhood teacher knows, learning to share materials is often difficult for children, especially for younger children and those who are new to the program. It is very hard for them to have to wait for their favorite puzzle or truck.
Children who have not had their own toys or space are often reluctant to share. By allowing them to have sole possession of a toy or book, they will find it easier to let go and share. As children begin to feel part of the group and develop friendships, they see the value of sharing. When children play
SAY OR DO THIS INSTEAD OF THIS
“Use quiet voices inside, save your loud voices for outside.” “Will you stop screaming!” or “You’re giving me a headache.”
“You’re angry, but hitting hurts. Let’s talk about what’s bothering you.” “Haven’t I told you not to hit other children?”
“Usc. the shovel to dig with; if you want to throw something, you can throw the ball.” “If you don’t put that shovel down right now, I’m going to take it away.”
“It’s dangerous to push people on the slide. They may get hurt” “If you don’t stop pushing other children on the slide, they’ll start pushing you.”
“Careful drivers put on their brakes or sound their horns.” “Stop running those trucks into the WallS!”
“Throw the stick over the fence so no one will get hurt” “Put that stick down. Don’t you know someone might get hurt?”
“Keep the puzzle on the table so the pieces don’t get losi” “Didyoudumpthepuzzlepiecesontheflooragain? Itoldyou not to do thai”
“Wipe your brush on the jar, so it won’t drip.” “You’re dripping paint all over the floor! Why don’t you find another activity?”
gether successfully and work cooperatively on a joint project, they learn the benefits of sharing. pcouraging children to play together is one way to promote sharing.
faking It Easier for Children to Wait for a Turn
part of sharing is learning to wait for a turn. You might say, “In five minutes it will be your turn,” ut for young children five minutes can seem an eternity. It isn’tjust that children are impatient; they ally have no concept of how long one minute is. The following strategies help children learn about :rfle in concrete terms:
Bring a kitchen timer with a bell to the classroom. The sound can be used to alert children to when their time is up.
Have children use an egg timer with sand in to determine their turns. (A homemade timer is described in the module on Sand and Water.)
• Post a waiting list in popular interest areas, and list the children waiting for a turn. Older children might be able to write their own names on the list. Children can then see for themselves how many children will have a turn before it is their own. After they have finished their turn, they can cross their names off the waiting list.
• Use a clock to show children how to track the time. Point out that “when the big hand gets to the three, it will be your turn.”
children are given the tools with which to solve their own disputes, they learn to take :‘.onsibility for their behavior. Children can be taught to “use their words,” as the following arnp1e illustrates:
Peter: “She hit me!”
Teacher: “Tell Jean you don’t like it when she hits you.”
“Well, I had the police hat and he took it.”
Teacher: “The next time anyone takes something from you, tell them that you are using it and that they can have it when you are done. Hitting hurts and doesn’t solve
the problem.”
Peter: “But I need the police hat.”
Teacher: “What else could you use while you’re waiting?”
“There’s another hat, but it doesn’t have a badge.”
Teacher: “How could we make it look more like a police hat?”
Peter: “I could make a badge and tape it on. But I still want to use the police hat tomorrow.”
Teacher: “You make the badge for today. I’ll make a sign so that we can remember that you have the police hat on Thursday.”
Vith practice, children learn an important rule: o one hits in the classroom. They also learn a better ‘ay of dealing with disagreement: talkingabout it. Problem-solving skills can be enhanced by ‘writing signs to confirm the agreed-upon solution. Signs are powerful messages for children. Ghildren ask each other what their signs mean. Some children even want to wear their signs; others rnply post their signs on the walls. Children who can’t read will be proud of their signs and
memorize its content. Signs used in this way promote social development and cooperation as well as emergent literacy.
Including Children with Disabilities in Your Program
Inclusion of children with disabilities in the classroom (or mainstreaming) can be a very rewarding experience for everyone involved. Children with disabilities are children first. They can thrive in an environment that is accepting of differences and where adults strive to meet each child’s individual needs.
For the teacher, including children with disabilities in the program means helping these children live, learn, play, and make friends in the least restrictive environment. This environment provides opportunities for each child to become as independent as possible. By working with parents, specialists, and staff members to adapt the facilities and program structure to meet the individual needs of children with disabilities, you can help these children to perform as much as possible like typically developing children.
The Creative Curriculum for Early Childhood is appropriate for all three- to five-year-old children, including children with disabilities. Because the curriculum is developmentally based, it provides a useful framework for assessing where children are in a continuum and for meeting their individual needs. Its emphasis on organizing the physical environment to promote learning is especially important for children who need more structure and predictability in their lives.
Planning for children with disabilities requires careful thought and often the assistance of specialists. It is very important to know the child’s learning style, likes and dislikes, and how the specific disability may or may not affect the child’s learning and activities. Task analysis—a process of breaking down tasks into sequential and manageable steps so the child is successful at each step— is one method that may be helpful.
Sometimes adjustments in the daily schedule are recommended because these children may need to have their day paced differently. For example, they may need extra quiet time or an Opportunity to get up and move around more during circle time. Transition times are often difficult for children with emotional or attention problems. You will need to help these children develop coping strategies for these times. Explaining ahead of time that a transition is coming may assist a child to get ready for it. Having a teacher or friend with the child during a transition time may help to make the transition easier and smoother.
dren with behavior problems may need extra help controlling theirbehavior. Some children need
--‘ concrete demonstrations of how to share toys or play cooperatively with other children. Many
- ren with disabilities, including language-delayed children, benefit from demonstrations along verbal directions.
support for staff is an important element of addressing the needs of children with disabilities
- he classroom. A short time during each day should be set aside for.the staff to discuss management curriculum concerns regarding the entire class, especially children experiencing difficulties with a us aspects of the overall program. It is also helpful to secure assistance from appropriate outside
--aessionals, such as speech and language pathologist, clinical psychologist, or occupational
- aaDiSt. These specialists can often provide insights about the child’s needs and strengths and
--a:egies for working with the child. Opportunities to participate in training sessions, and frequent
— act and communication with parents are also useful for the classroom teacher.
u delines for Teaching Children with Disabilities
- a s arategies suggested for working with children who have one or more disabilities are good hing practices for all children. However, they are especially important in working with children
- a have special needs.
• Consult with the parents. A child who comes with a diagnosed disability has probably already been evaluated by a specialist. The parents can provide valuable information on how to work with their child.
Consult with a specialist. While the strategies for working with different disabilities may overlap, it is essential for teachers to have specific guidance on each disability. Advice should be sought from specialists to learn the most up-to-date instructional approaches.
Focus on integrating the childinto daily activities. Children with disabilities benefit from the opportunity to operate in the least restrictive environment. They can make tremendous strides in theirdevelopment being with otherchildren who wiU themselves benefit.
• Set goals. Establish realistic goals for each child based on observation and actual performance. These goals should be reviewed frequently and revised as needed.
• Modify the physical environment. Modification of the physical space may be needed to ensure access. Providing a quiet place may be important for some children. Others may need additional space cues, such as tape on the floor or a special rug during circle time.
• Break down tasks. Carefully analyze classroom activities to determine just what skills are needed. Ranking these skills sequentially for various activities will make it easier to determine why a child may be having difficulty completing a simple task and what aspects of that task are most difficult. Task analysis will also help determine the level of difficulty or complexity of a series of activities.
Pace activities. Children with special needs may need more time to complete tasks. Extra quiet time may be needed for one child, while another may need to be able to move around during circle time or rest period.
• Teach to each child’s strengths. Based on observations, conversations with parents, as well as the results of formal test information, determine each child’s most effective mode of learning.
• Promote cooperative learning. Encouraging children to work in pairs on a task in a cooperative learning setting benefits both the helper and the child who is helped. It also builds social skills and an appreciation of individual differences.
• Plan for transition times. Arrival and departure times, as well as changes of activities during the day, are difficult for some children. Both the arrival time in the morning and the departure time in the afternoon may need to be highly structured and predictable. During the day, giving advance notice that a shift in activities is taking place may help. A “buddy” system can also ease transition times.
• Encourage independence. Some children may need extra support at various times to develop skills as well as self-confidence. Gaining independence is important for all children and it is especially important for the self-esteem of children with disabilities.
• Allow timefor practice and repetition. As children are introduced to new skills, they need opportunities to practice and repeat them until they demonstrate mastery.
• Involve parents. Be sensitive to the fact that parents of children with disabilities may need extra consideration, support, and time. Close communication, use of a short written report and/or checklist, and parent visits are very helpful for promoting a partnership.
Language Considerations
It is not unusual for children with learning problems and developmental delays also to experc delays in language development; they may have trouble finding the exact words for what they Wa::
to say. Children with mental retardation tend to have difficulty in comprehension as well as recep :i and expressive language skills. The language of hearing-impaired children may be characteristic c much younger children and may not be an accurate reflection of their actual intelligence. Childre:
with cerebral palsy may have articulation problems that make it difficult for them to be understo>.
Early childhood teachers need to be attuned to the developmental milestones in language acqis::
and alert to the level of language development of children in order to make needed adaptations. are some suggestions which could be incorporated into regular classroom activities:
• Be a good listener. It may be difficult to understand children with language delays or articulation problems. Try to be patient and understanding in order to affirm the importance of what these children are saying.
• Talk about what you are doing. Verbal explanations along with actions help reinforce language for young children.
• Look and listen. Ensure that you have a child’s attention through a verbal reminder or a gentle touch. Be alert to nonverbal clues exhibited by the child.
• Give directions simply. Some children may need to have directions repeated or rephrased. Make sure they are listening when you start to speak and that they understand the task at hand.
Be patient. Allow enough time for a response; don’t rush the child.
Give a choice of words. If a child is having difficulty finding the right word, offer three words from which he or she can make a choice.
Be responsive. Respond to what a child is telling you and if possible expand by rephrasing and elaborating on the statement.
Model appropriate language. Rather than correcting grammar or pronunciation, simply repeat the phrase correctly.
:mmodating Children with Disabilities in the Creative Curriculum
- :ad earlier, the approach outlined in the Creative Curriculum allows you to accommodate
- az-en with disabilities into your program. On the next page is a chart outlining various strategies
- :s: you in meeting the specific needs of children with identified disabilities. These are general a es, not specific-recommendations. Each child is an individual and there are great differences
c all children regardless of whether or not they have a disability. These differences depend on
.erity of the handicap, level of intelligence, the child’s temperament, the family situation, and
e of experiences the child has had.
so important to recognize that achild may have more than one disability. A child with aphysical itv, for instance, may also have a language delay. A learning-disabled child may also have an :an deficit disorder (ADD) and language delay, as well as perceptual problems. The advice of :iaiists should always be sought when addressing needs that may be beyond your experience and = r:ise.
king with Children Prenatally Exposed to Drugs or Alcohol
• aildhood programs, particularly those in urban areas, are enrolling an increasing number of whose disability was caused by prenatal exposure to drugs and alcohol. Since the onset of
ac cocaine epidemic in the mid-1980’s, an alarming number of pregnant women have taken and given birth to infants who may show the following effects: abnormal motor development,
a-rrs in their arms and hands when they reach for objects, unusual muscle tone and movement
n s. and difficulty in relating to or accepting comfort from others. Not all infants whose mothers drugs or alcohol exhibit these symptoms. The severity of the problem may vary depending on :e range of factors, including the extent, duration, and type of drugs the mother used.
:hese children begin entering school, their teachers may be confronted by a wide range of :e-a’;iors that cause them concern. We are just beginning to learn about the effects of prenatal :sure to drugs and to design approaches that will help these children succeed. Many of the :r5:egies offered in this curriculum will be appropriate and effective in meeting their needs. You
also want to seek the advice of experts if you need additional help.
ACCOMMODATING CHILDREN WITH DISABILITIES
Language Delay Expand on what child says; talk about what you are doing; model the correct usage and pronunciation instead of correcting.
Provide frequent visual or concrete reinforcement.
Keep directions simple; encourage child to repeat them for reinforcement.
Explain new concepts or vocabulary.
Attention problems Start with short group sessions and activities.
Provide visual clues (e.g., define floor space with tape).
Offer a limited number of choices.
Provide positive reinforcement for sustained attention.
Help child quiet down after vigorous play.
Plan for transition times, including arrival and departure.
Developmental delays and learning disabilities Allow for extra demonstrations and practice sessions.
Keep all directions simple, sequenced, and organized.
Offer extra help in developing fine and gross motor skills, if needed.
Emotional/social problems Provide extra structure by limiting toys and defining physical space for activities.
Allow shy child to observe group activities until ready to participate.
Help aggressive child control behavior through consistent enforcement of rules.
Observe dramatic play for important clues about feelings and concerns.
Help child learn how to express feelings in appropriate ways.
Mental retardation Establish realistic goals for each child.
Provide frequent positive feedback.
Sequence learning activities into small steps.
Allow adequate time for performance and learning.
Encourage cooperative play and help the child move from independent to parallel to group interaction.
Impaired hearing Obtain child’s attention when speaking; seat child close to voice or music.
Repeat, rephrase as needed; alert other children to use same technique
Learn some sign language and teach signing to the entire class.
Provide visual clues (e.g., pictures or. . —. . — to represent rhythm).
Demonstrate new activities or tasks.
Impaired vision Ensure child’s safety at all times without being overprotective.
Provide verbal clues for activities.
Introduce child to equipment and space verbally and through touch.
Use a “buddy” system.
Physical disability or poor coordination
Accessibility
Organize physical space to accommodate child in wheelchair.
Use tables that accommodate wheelchairs or provide trays on wheelchairs.
Use bolsters or other supports for floor activities.
Provide adaptive equipment for standing.
[arn about the availability of assistive technology and devices.
Manual de.xeriy
Use magnetic toys to facilitate small muscle activities.
Attach bells to wrist or anides for musical activities.
Use adaptive scissors or spoons as needed.
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